No problem awesome pics... so it was deserved.

I also apologize in advance if I never leave comments, I'm a bit of a lurker

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Thank you very much for the watch. :3

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My english skills are not as good as yours.
Therefore, if I say something that seems stupid, please forgive me, okay?


please go visit my page sometime.
[link]

HIHIHI!!!

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HIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII


-This is Wendy by the way

just for everyone else's information, the unhidden spam is actually humourous to me. I thank ~ThatHandsomeDevil for making my day by taking all the effort to post that much actual spam on my page. all the articles are actually different pages... they're all individual. How very interesting

I'm happy that someone is taking the time to deface my screen with meaninglessness, but I would appreciate it if it didn't happen in the future. I will report further defacings from ~ThatHandsomeDevil if they so occur. Until then, enjoy the stupidity of his spam.

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wait.........

why does you know about desu..... ?

lol... i hope you're not just quoting things without knowing where it comes from.

Suiseiseki from Rozen Maiden [link]

[link] <-- how desu is actually funny

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Hey! This was actually useful!! Thanks man! Bio.... you are my scourge....

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Generic spam.

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Jeff.

And what's spam without desu?

DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU DESU

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Jeff.

Cosmic rays are energetic particles originating from space that impinge on Earth's atmosphere. Almost 90% of all the incoming cosmic ray particles are protons, about 9% are helium nuclei (alpha particles) and about 1% are electrons (beta minus particles). The term "ray" is a misnomer, as cosmic particles arrive individually, not in the form of a ray or beam of particles.

The variety of particle energies reflects the wide variety of sources. The origins of these particles range from energetic processes on the Sun all the way to as yet unknown events in the farthest reaches of the visible universe. Cosmic rays can have energies of over 1020 eV, far higher than the 1012 to 1013 eV that man-made particle accelerators can produce. (See Ultra-high-energy cosmic rays for a description of the detection of a single particle with an energy of about 50 J, the same as a well-hit tennis ball at 42 m/s [about 94 mph].) There has been interest in investigating cosmic rays of even greater energies.[1]
The energy spectrum for cosmic rays
The energy spectrum for cosmic rays
Contents

* 1 Cosmic ray sources
o 1.1 Solar cosmic rays
o 1.2 Galactic cosmic rays
o 1.3 Extragalactic cosmic rays
o 1.4 Ultra-high-energy cosmic rays
o 1.5 Anomalous cosmic rays
* 2 Composition
* 3 Modulation
* 4 Detection
o 4.1 Detection by Particle Track-Etch Technique
o 4.2 Interaction with the Earth's atmosphere
* 5 Unusual Cosmic Rays
* 6 Research and experiments
* 7 History
* 8 Effects
o 8.1 Role in ambient radiation
o 8.2 Effect on electronics
o 8.3 Significance to space travel
o 8.4 Role in lightning
o 8.5 Role in climate change
* 9 Cosmic rays and fiction
* 10 See also
* 11 Notes
* 12 References
* 13 External links

[edit] Cosmic ray sources

Most cosmic rays originate from extrasolar sources within our own galaxy such as rotating neutron stars, supernovae, and black holes. However, the fact that some cosmic rays have extremely high energies provides evidence that at least some must be of extra-galactic origin (e.g. radio galaxies and quasars); the local galactic magnetic field would not be able to contain particles with such a high energy. The origin of cosmic rays with energies up to 1014 eV can be accounted for in terms of shock-wave acceleration in supernova shells. The origin of cosmic rays with energy greater than 1014 eV remained unknown until recently, when a large collaborative experiment at the Pierre Auger Observatory appears to have answered this question. In preliminary results announced in November, 2007 they showed a strong correlation between their 27 most energetic events and active galactic nuclei [AGN]. These results demonstrated that there is only a small chance (less than 1/100) that the highest energy protons originated from outside the AGN.

Observations have shown that cosmic rays with an energy above 10 GeV (10 x 109 eV) approach the Earth’s surface isotropically (equally from all directions); it has been hypothesised that this is not due to an even distribution of cosmic ray sources, but instead is due to galactic magnetic fields causing cosmic rays to travel in spiral paths. This limits cosmic ray’s usefulness in positional astronomy as they carry no information of their direction of origin. At energies below 10 GeV there is a directional dependence, due to the interaction of the charged component of the cosmic rays with the Earth's magnetic field.

[edit] Solar cosmic rays

Solar cosmic rays or solar energetic particles (SEP) are cosmic rays that originate from the Sun. The average composition is similar to that of the Sun itself. There exists no clear and sharp boundary between the phase spaces of the solar wind and SEP plasma particle populations.[2]

The name solar cosmic ray itself is a misnomer because the term cosmic implies that the rays are from the cosmos and not the solar system, but it has stuck. The misnomer arose because there is continuity in the energy spectra, i.e., the flux of particles as a function of their energy, because the low-energy solar cosmic rays fade more or less smoothly into the galactic ones as one looks at increasingly higher energies.[citation needed] Until the mid-1960s the energy distributions were generally averaged over long time intervals, which also obscured the difference. Later, it was found that the solar cosmic rays vary widely in their intensity and spectrum, increasing in strength after some solar events such as solar flares. Further, an increase in the intensity of solar cosmic rays is followed by a decrease in all other cosmic rays, called the Forbush decrease after their discoverer, the physicist Scott Forbush. These decreases are due to the solar wind with its entrained magnetic field sweeping some of the galactic cosmic rays outwards, away from the Sun and Earth. The overall or average rate of Forbush decreases tends to follow the 11-year sunspot cycle, but individual events are tied to events on the Sun, as explained above.

There are further differences between cosmic rays of solar and galactic origin, mainly in that the galactic cosmic rays show an enhancement of heavy elements such as calcium, iron and gallium, as well as of cosmically rare light elements such as lithium and beryllium. The latter result from the cosmic ray spallation (fragmentation) of heavy nuclei due to collisions in transit from the distant sources to the solar system.[citation needed]

[edit] Galactic cosmic rays

See Galactic cosmic ray.

[edit] Extragalactic cosmic rays

See Extragalactic cosmic ray.

[edit] Ultra-high-energy cosmic rays

See Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray.

[edit] Anomalous cosmic rays

Anomalous cosmic rays (ACRs) are cosmic rays with unexpectedly low energies. They are thought to be created near the edge of our solar system, in the heliosheath, the border region between the heliosphere and the interstellar medium. When electrically neutral atoms are able to enter the heliosheath (being unaffected by its magnetic fields) subsequently become ionized, they are thought to be accelerated into low-energy cosmic rays by the solar wind's termination shock which marks the inner edge of the heliosheath. It is also possible that high energy galactic cosmic rays which hit the shock front of the solar wind near the heliopause might be decelerated, resulting in their transformation into lower-energy anomalous cosmic rays.

The Voyager 1 space probe crossed the termination shock on December 16, 2004, according to papers published in the journal Science.[3] Readings showed particle acceleration, but not of the kind that generates ACRs. It is unclear at this stage (September 2005) if this is typical of the termination shock (requiring a major rethink of the origin of ACRs), or a localised feature of that part of the termination shock that Voyager 1 passed through. Voyager 2 is expected to cross the termination shock during or after 2008, which will provide more data.

[edit] Composition

Cosmic rays may broadly be divided into two categories, primary and secondary. The cosmic rays that arise in extrasolar astrophysical sources are primary cosmic rays; these primary cosmic rays can interact with interstellar matter to create secondary cosmic rays. The sun also emits low energy cosmic rays associated with solar flares. The exact composition of primary cosmic rays, outside the Earth's atmosphere, is dependent on which part of the energy spectrum is observed. However, in general, almost 90% of all the incoming cosmic rays are protons, about 9% are helium nuclei (alpha particles) and about 1% are electrons. The remaining fraction is made up of the other heavier nuclei which are abundant end products of star’s nuclear synthesis. Secondary cosmic rays consist of the other nuclei which are not abundant nuclear synthesis end products, or products of the Big Bang, primarily lithium, beryllium and boron. These light nuclei appear in cosmic rays in much greater abundance (about 1:100 particles) than in solar atmospheres, where their abundance is about 10-7 that of helium.

This abundance difference is a result of the way secondary cosmic rays are formed. When the heavy nuclei components of primary cosmic rays, namely the carbon and oxygen nuclei, collide with interstellar matter, they break up into lighter nuclei (in a process termed cosmic ray spallation), into lithium, beryllium and boron. It is found that the energy spectra of Li, Be and B falls off somewhat steeper than that of carbon or oxygen, indicating that less cosmic ray spallation occurs for the higher energy nuclei presumably due to their escape from the galactic magnetic field. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of Sc, Ti, V and Mn elements in cosmic rays, which are produced by collisions of Fe and Ni nuclei with interstellar matter; see Environmental radioactivity#Naturals.

In the past, it was believed that the cosmic ray flux has remained fairly constant over time. Recent research has, however, produced evidence for 1.5 to 2-fold millennium-timescale changes in the cosmic ray flux in the past forty thousand years.[4]

[edit] Modulation

The flux (flow rate) of cosmic rays incident on the Earth’s upper atmosphere is modulated (varied) by two processes; the sun’s solar wind and the Earth's magnetic field. Solar wind is expanding magnetized plasma generated by the sun, which has the effect of decelerating the incoming particles as well as partially excluding some of the particles with energies below about 1 GeV. The amount of solar wind is not constant due to changes in solar activity over its regular eleven-year cycle. Hence the level of modulation varies in autocorrelation with solar activity. Also the Earth's magnetic field deflects some of the cosmic rays, which is confirmed by the fact that the intensity of cosmic radiation is dependent on latitude, longitude and azimuth. The cosmic flux varies from eastern and western directions due to the polarity of the Earth’s geomagnetic field and the positive charge dominance in primary cosmic rays; this is termed the east-west effect. The cosmic ray intensity at the equator is lower than at the poles as the geomagnetic cutoff value is greatest at the equator. This can be understood by the fact that charged particle tend to move in the direction of field lines and not across them. This is the reason the Aurorae occur at the poles, since the field lines curve down towards the Earth’s surface there. Finally, the longitude dependence arises from the fact that the geomagnetic dipole axis is not parallel to the Earth’s rotation axis.

This modulation which describes the change in the interstellar intensities of cosmic rays as they propagate in the heliosphere is highly energy and spatial dependent, and it is described by the Parker's Transport Equation in the heliosphere. At large radial distances, far from the Sun ~ 94 AU, there exists the region where the solar wind undergoes a transition from supersonic to subsonic speeds called the solar wind termination shock. The region between the termination shock and the heliospause (the boundary marking the end of the heliosphere) is called the heliosheath. This region acts as a barrier to cosmic rays and it decreases their intensities at lower energies by about 90% indicating that it is not only the Earth's magnetic field that protect us from cosmic ray bombardment. For more on this topic and how the barrier effects occur the agile reader is referred to Mabedle Donald Ngobeni and Marius Potgieter (2007), and Mabedle Donald Ngobeni (2006).

From modelling point of view, there is a challenge in determining the Local Interstellar spectra (LIS) due to large adiabatic energy changes these particles experience owing to the diverging solar wind in the heliosphere. However, significant progress has been made in the field of cosmic ray studies with the development of an improved state-of-the-art 2D numerical model that includes the simulation of the solar wind termination shock, drifts and the heliosheath coupled with fresh descriptions of the diffusion tensor, see Langner et al. (2004). But challenges also exist because the structure of the solar wind and the turbulent magnetic field in the heliosheath is not well understood indicating the heliosheath as the region unknown beyond. With lack of knowledge of the diffusion coefficient perpendicular to the magnetic field our knowledge of the heliosphere and from the modelling point of view is far from complete. There exist promising theories like ab initio approaches, but the drawback is that such theories produce poor compatibility with observations (Minnie, 2006) indicating their failure in describing the mechanisms influencing the cosmic rays in the heliosphere.

[edit] Detection
The Moon's cosmic ray shadow, as seen in secondary muons detected 700m below ground, at the Soudan 2 detector
The Moon's cosmic ray shadow, as seen in secondary muons detected 700m below ground, at the Soudan 2 detector

The nuclei that make up cosmic rays are able to travel from their distant sources to the Earth because of the low density of matter in space. Nuclei interact strongly with other matter, so when the cosmic rays approach Earth they begin to collide with the nuclei of atmospheric gases. These collisions, in a process known as a shower, result in the production of many pions and kaons, unstable mesons which quickly decay into muons. Because muons do not interact strongly with the atmosphere and because of the relativistic effect of time dilation many of these muons are able to reach the surface of the Earth. Muons are ionizing radiation, and may easily be detected by many types of particle detectors such as bubble chambers or scintillation detectors. If several muons are observed by separated detectors at the same instant it is clear that they must have been produced in the same shower event.

[edit] Detection by Particle Track-Etch Technique

Cosmic rays can also be detected directly when they pass through particle detectors flown aboard satellites or in high altitude balloons. In a pioneering technique developed by P. Buford Price et al., sheets of clear plastic such as 1/4 mil Lexan polycarbonate can be stacked together and exposed directly to cosmic rays in space or high altitude. When returned to the laboratory, the plastic sheets are "etched" [literally, slowly dissolved] in warm caustic sodium hydroxide solution, which slowly removes the surface material at a slow, known rate. Wherever a bare cosmic ray nucleus passes through the detector, the nuclear charge causes chemical bond breaking in the plastic. The slower the particle, the more extensive is the bond-breaking along the path; and the higher the charge [the higher the Z], the more extensive is the bond-breaking along the path. The caustic sodium hydroxide dissolves at a faster rate along the path of the damage, but thereafter dissolves at the slower base-rate along the surface of the minute hole that was drilled. The net result is a conical shaped pit in the plastic; typically with two pits per sheet [one originating from each side of the plastic]. The etch pits can be measured under a high power microscope [typically 1600X oil-immersion], and the etch rate plotted as a function of the depth in the stack of plastic. At the top of the stack, the ionization damage is less due to the higher speed. As the speed decreases due to deceleration in the stack, the ionization damage increases along the path. This generates a unique curve for each atomic nucleus of Z from 1 to 92, allowing identification of both the charge and energy [speed] of the particle that traverses the stack. This technique has been used with great success for detecting not only cosmic rays, but fission product nuclei for neutron detectors.

[edit] Interaction with the Earth's atmosphere

When cosmic ray particles enter the Earth's atmosphere they collide with molecules, mainly oxygen and nitrogen, to produce a cascade of lighter particles, a so-called air shower. The general idea is shown in the figure which shows a cosmic ray shower produced by a high energy proton of cosmic ray origin striking an atmospheric molecule.

This image is a simplified picture of an air shower: in reality, the number of particles created in an air shower event can reach in the billions, depending on the energy and chemical environment (i.e. atmospheric) of the primary particle. All of the produced particles stay within about one degree of the primary particle's path. Typical particles produced in such collisions are charged mesons (e.g. positive and negative pions and kaons); one common collision is:

p + \mathrm{O}^{16} \rightarrow n + \pi

Cosmic rays are also responsible for the continuous production of a number of unstable isotopes in the Earth’s atmosphere, such as carbon-14, via the reaction:

n + \mathrm{N}^{14} \rightarrow p + \mathrm{C}^{14}

Cosmic rays kept the level of carbon-14 in the atmosphere roughly constant (70 tons) for at least the past 100,000 years, until the beginning of aboveground nuclear weapons testing in the early 1950s. This is an important fact used in radiocarbon dating which is used in archaeology.

Searches for such MBHs via a possible Hawking radiation emission signal might be taken at the Pierre Auger cosmic ray observatory. Additionally, searches for Hawking Radiation are planned for possible MBHs that might be created at the Large Hadron Collider [LHC].

[edit] Unusual Cosmic Rays

In 1975, a team of researchers headed by P. Buford Price at U.C. Berkeley announced the discovery[5] of a cosmic ray track in a particle detector slung under a high-altitude balloon that was significantly different from all others ever measured. Using the particle track-etch method pioneered by Price, et al., they discovered the track of a particle that had passed through 32 sheets of 1/4 mil Lexan plastic without any measurable change in ionization. Yet, the Cerenkov detector admitted only of particles less than 2/3 c [the speed of light in the clear plastic]. The charge was measured as being 137, the same as predicted by Paul Dirac who first predicted the theoretical existence of magnetic monopoles. The particle track preliminarily identified as having been caused by a magnetic monopole had been spotted by technical assistant Walter L. Wagner.[6]

A possible alternative explanation was offered by Alvarez[7]. In his paper it was demonstrated that the path of the cosmic ray event that was claimed to be due to a magnetic monopole could be reproduced by a path followed by a Platinum nucleus fragmenting to Osmium and then to Tantalum.

[edit] Research and experiments

There are a number of cosmic ray research initiatives. These include, but are not limited to:

* CHICOS
* PAMELA
* Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer
* MARIACHI
* Pierre Auger Observatory
* Spaceship Earth

[edit] History

After the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896, it was generally believed that atmospheric electricity (ionization of the air) was caused only by radiation from radioactive elements in the ground or the radioactive gases (isotopes of radon) they produce. Measurements of ionization rates at increasing heights above the ground during the decade from 1900 to 1910 showed a decrease that could be explained as due to absorption of the ionizing radiation by the intervening air. Then, in 1912, Victor Hess carried three Wulf electrometers (a device to measure the rate of ion production inside a hermetically sealed container) to an altitude of 5300 meters in a free balloon flight. He found the ionization rate increased approximately fourfold over the rate at ground level. He concluded "The results of my observation are best explained by the assumption that a radiation of very great penetrating power enters our atmosphere from above." In 1913-14, Werner Kolhörster confirmed Victor Hess' results by measuring the increased ionization rate at an altitude of 9 km. Hess received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1936 for his discovery of what came to be called "cosmic rays".

For many years it was generally believed that cosmic rays were high-energy photons (gamma rays) with some secondary electrons produced by Compton scattering of the gamma rays. Then, during the decade from 1927 to 1937 a wide variety of experimental investigations demonstrated that the primary cosmic rays are mostly positively charged particles, and the secondary radiation observed at ground level is composed primarily of a "soft component" of electrons and photons and a "hard component" of penetrating particles, muons. The muon was initially believed to be the unstable particle predicted by Hideki Yukawa in 1935 in his theory of the nuclear force. Experiments proved that the muon decays with a mean life of 2.2 microseconds into an electron and two neutrinos, but that it does not interact strongly with nuclei, so it could not be the Yukawa particle. The mystery was solved by the discovery in 1947 of the pion, which is produced directly in high-energy nuclear interactions. It decays into a muon and one neutrino with a mean life of 0.0026 microseconds. The pion→muon→electron decay sequence was observed directly in a microscopic examination of particle tracks in a special kind of photographic plate called a nuclear emulsion that had been exposed to cosmic rays at a high-altitude mountain station. In 1948, observations with nuclear emulsions carried by balloons to near the top of the atmosphere by Gottlieb and Van Allen showed that the primary cosmic particles are mostly protons with some helium nuclei (alpha particles) and a small fraction heavier nuclei.

In 1934 Bruno Rossi reported an observation of near-simultaneous discharges of two Geiger counters widely separated in a horizontal plane during a test of equipment he was using in a measurement of the so-called east-west effect. In his report on the experiment, Rossi wrote "...it seems that once in a while the recording equipment is struck by very extensive showers of particles, which causes coincidences between the counters, even placed at large distances from one another. Unfortunately, he did not have the time to study this phenomenon more closely." In 1937 Pierre Auger, unaware of Rossi's earlier report, detected the same phenomenon and investigated it in some detail. He concluded that extensive particle showers are generated by high-energy primary cosmic-ray particles that interact with air nuclei high in the atmosphere, initiating a cascade of secondary interactions that ultimately yield a shower of electrons, photons, and muons that reach ground level.

Homi J. Bhabha derived an expression for the probability of scattering positrons by electrons, a process now known as Bhabha scattering. His classic paper, jointly with Warren Heitler, published in 1937 described how primary cosmic rays from space interact with the upper atmosphere to produce particles observed at the ground level. Bhabha and Heitler explained the cosmic ray shower formation by the cascade production of gamma rays and positive and negative electron pairs. In 1938 Bhabha concluded that observations of the properties of such particles would lead to the straightforward experimental verification of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.

Measurements of the energy and arrival directions of the ultra-high-energy primary cosmic rays by the techniques of "density sampling" and "fast timing" of extensive air showers were first carried out in 1954 by members of the Rossi Cosmic Ray Group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The experiment employed eleven scintillation detectors arranged within a circle 460 meters in diameter on the grounds of the Agassiz Station of the Harvard College Observatory. From that work, and from many other experiments carried out all over the world, the energy spectrum of the primary cosmic rays is now known to extend beyond 1020 eV (past the GZK cutoff, beyond which very few cosmic rays should be observed). A huge air shower experiment called the Auger Project is currently operated at a site on the pampas of Argentina by an international consortium of physicists. Their aim is to explore the properties and arrival directions of the very highest energy primary cosmic rays. The results are expected to have important implications for particle physics and cosmology. In November, 2007 preliminary results were announced showing direction of origination of the 27 highest energy events were strongly correlated with the locations of active galactic nuclei [AGN], where bare protons are believed accelerated by strong magnetic fields associated with the large black holes at the AGN centers to energies of 1E20 eV and higher.

Three varieties of neutrino are produced when the unstable particles produced in cosmic ray showers decay. Since neutrinos interact only weakly with matter most of them simply pass through the Earth and exit the other side. They very occasionally interact, however, and these atmospheric neutrinos have been detected by several deep underground experiments. The Super-Kamiokande in Japan provided the first convincing evidence for neutrino oscillation in which one flavour of neutrino changes into another. The evidence was found in a difference in the ratio of electron neutrinos to muon neutrinos depending on the distance they have traveled through the air and earth.

[edit] Effects

[edit] Role in ambient radiation

Cosmic rays constitute a fraction of the annual radiation exposure of human beings on earth. For example, the average radiation exposure in Australia is 0.3 mSv due to cosmic rays, out of a total of 2.3 mSv.[1]

[edit] Effect on electronics

Cosmic rays have sufficient energy to alter the states of elements in electronic integrated circuits, causing transient errors to occur, such as corrupted data in memory, or incorrect behavior of a CPU. This has been a problem in high-altitude electronics, such as in satellites, but as transistors become smaller it is becoming an increasing concern in ground-level equipment as well.[8]

To alleviate this problem, Intel has proposed a cosmic ray detector which could be integrated into future high-density microprocessors, allowing the processor to repeat the last command following a cosmic ray event.[9]

[edit] Significance to space travel

Galactic cosmic rays are one of the most important barriers standing in the way of plans for interplanetary travel by crewed spacecraft. See Health threat from cosmic rays.

[edit] Role in lightning

Cosmic rays have been implicated in the triggering of electrical breakdown in lightning. It has been proposed that essentially all lightning is triggered through a relativistic process, "runaway breakdown", seeded by cosmic ray secondaries. Subsequent development of the lightning discharge then occurs through "conventional breakdown" mechanisms.[10]

[edit] Role in climate change

Whether cosmic rays have any role in climate change is disputed. Different groups have made different arguments regarding the role of cosmic ray forcing in climate change.

Shaviv et al. have argued that galactic cosmic ray (GCR) climate signals on geological time scales are attributable to changing positions of the galactic spiral arms of the Milky Way, and that cosmic ray flux variability is the dominant climate driver over these time periods.[11][12] They also argue that GCR flux variability plays an important role in climate variability over shorter time scales, though the relative contribution of anthropogenic factors in relation to GCR flux presently is a matter of continued debate.[13] Because of uncertainty about which GCR energies are the most important drivers of cloud cover variation (if any), and because of the paucity of historical data on cosmic ray flux at various ranges of energies, controversies remain.[14]

Henrik Svensmark et al. have argued that solar variations modulate the cosmic ray signal seen at the earth and that this would affect cloud formation and hence climate. Cosmic rays have been experimentally determined to be able to produce ultra-small aerosol particles,[15] orders of magnitude smaller than cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). Whether this mechanism is relevant to the real atmosphere is unknown; in particular, the steps from this to modulation of cloud formation and thence climate have not been established. The analogy is with the Wilson cloud chamber, however acting on a global scale, where earth's atmosphere acts as the cloud chamber and the cosmic rays catalyze the production of CCN. But unlike a cloud chamber, where the air is carefully purified, the real atmosphere always has many CCN naturally. Various proposals have been made for the mechanism by which cosmic rays might affect clouds, including ion mediated nucleation, and indirect effects on current flow density in the global electric circuit (see Tinsley 2000, and F. Yu 1999). Claims have been made of identification of GCR climate signals in atmospheric parameters such as high latitude precipitation (Todd & Kniveton), and Svensmark's annual cloud cover variations, which were said to be correlated to GCR variation.

That Svensmark's work can be extrapolated to suggest any meaningful connection with global warming is disputed:[16]

At the time we pointed out that while the experiments were potentially of interest, they are a long way from actually demonstrating an influence of cosmic rays on the real world climate, and in no way justify the hyperbole that Svensmark and colleagues put into their press releases and more 'opular' pieces. Even if the evidence for solar forcing were legitimate, any bizarre calculus that takes evidence for solar forcing of climate as evidence against greenhouse gases for current climate change is simply wrong. Whether cosmic rays are correlated with climate or not, they have been regularly measured by the neutron monitor at Climax Station (Colorado) since 1953 and show no long term trend. No trend = no explanation for current changes.[17]

However, support for Svensmark's claim came in 2006 when Harrison et al in a paper in Geophysical Research Abstracts, (Vol. 8, 07661, 2006) demonstrated new evidence that comsic rays indeed affect cloudiness. Diffuse radiation as created by condensed water in the atmosphere decreased within hours of an sudden transient decrease in comsic rays, e.g. during Forbush events. Harrisons et al's conclusion was that cosmic rays unambiguously affects cloudiness. The magnitude of the effect is still not independently estimated. The Harrison et al study looked at data of diffuse radiation over the UK and Svensmark's claim is that the main effect will be over large oceans far from land; hence the study cannot be used to assess the magnitude of the proposed effect.

More recently a Lancaster University study produced further compelling evidence showing that modern-day climate change is not caused by changes in the Sun's activity.[18]

See-also Global warming#Solar variation.

[edit] Cosmic rays and fiction

Because of the metaphysical connotations of the word "cosmic", the very name of these particles enables their misinterpretation by the public, giving them an aura of mysterious powers. Were they merely referred to as "high-speed protons and atomic nuclei" this might not be so.

In fiction, cosmic rays have been used as a catchall, mostly in comics (notably the Marvel Comics group the Fantastic Four), as a source for mutation and therefore the powers gained by being bombarded with them.

Also, in the book Atlas Shrugged by author Ayn Rand, Dr. Robert Stadler's research of cosmic rays is said to have contributed to Project X: a weapon of mass destruction.

--
Jeff.

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is a particle accelerator located at CERN, near Geneva, Switzerland. It lies in a tunnel under France and Switzerland.

The LHC is in the final stages of construction, and commissioning, with some sections already being cooled down to their final operating temperature of ~2K. The first beams are due for injection mid June 2008 with the first collisions planned to take place 2 months later.[1] The LHC will become the world's largest and highest-energy particle accelerator.[2] The LHC is being funded and built in collaboration with over two thousand physicists from thirty-four countries as well as hundreds of universities and laboratories.

When activated, it is theorized that the collider will produce the elusive Higgs boson, the observation of which could confirm the predictions and "missing links" in the Standard Model of physics and could explain how other elementary particles acquire properties such as mass.[3][2] The verification of the existence of the Higgs boson would be a significant step in the search for a Grand Unified Theory, which seeks to unify the three fundamental forces: electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force. The Higgs boson may also help to explain why gravitation is so weak compared to the other three forces. In addition to the Higgs boson, other theorized novel particles that might be produced, and for which searches[4] are planned, include strangelets, micro black holes, magnetic monopoles and supersymmetric particles.[5]
Contents

* 1 Technical design
* 2 Research
* 3 As an ion collider
* 4 Proposed upgrade
* 5 Cost
* 6 LHC@Home
* 7 Safety concerns
o 7.1 Micro black holes
o 7.2 Strangelets
* 8 Legal challenge
* 9 Construction accidents and delays
* 10 See also
* 11 Notes and references
* 12 External links
o 12.1 Articles

Technical design
Superconducting quadrupole electromagnets are used to direct the beams to four intersection points where interactions between protons will take place.
Superconducting quadrupole electromagnets are used to direct the beams to four intersection points where interactions between protons will take place.

The collider is contained in a circular tunnel with a circumference of 27 kilometres (17 mi) at a depth ranging from 50 to 175 metres underground.[6] The tunnel, constructed between 1983 and 1988,[7] was formerly used to house the LEP, an electron-positron collider.

The 3.8 metre diameter, concrete-lined tunnel crosses the border between Switzerland and France at four points, although the majority of its length is inside France. The collider itself is underground, with surface buildings holding ancillary equipment such as compressors, ventilation equipment, control electronics and refrigeration plants.

The collider tunnel contains two pipes enclosed within superconducting magnets cooled by liquid helium, each pipe containing a proton beam. The two beams travel in opposite directions around the ring. Additional magnets are used to direct the beams to four intersection points where interactions between them will take place. In total, over 1600 superconducting magnets are installed, with most weighing over 27 tonnes. 96 tonnes of liquid helium is needed to keep the magnets at the operating temperature.[8]

The protons will each have an energy of 7 TeV, giving a total collision energy of 14 TeV. It will take around 90 microseconds for an individual proton to travel once around the collider. Rather than continuous beams, the protons will be "bunched" together, into approximately 2,800 bunches, so that interactions between the two beams will take place at discrete intervals never shorter than 25 nanoseconds apart. When the collider is first commissioned, it will be operated with fewer bunches, to give a bunch crossing interval of 75 ns. The number of bunches will later be increased to give a final bunch crossing interval of 25 ns.[citation needed]
LHC Accelerators
LHC Accelerators

Prior to being injected into the main accelerator, the particles are prepared through a series of systems that successively increase the particle energy levels. The first system is the linear accelerator Linac2 generating 50 MeV protons which feeds the Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB). Protons are then injected at 1.4 GeV into the Proton Synchrotron (PS) at 26 GeV. Finally the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) can be used to increase the energy of protons up to 450 GeV.

The LHC can also be used to collide heavy ions such as lead (Pb) with a collision energy of 1,150 TeV. The ions will be first accelerated by the linear accelerator Linac 3, and the Low-Energy Injector Ring (LEIR) will be used as an ion storage and cooler unit. The ions are then further accelerated by the Proton Synchrotron (PS) and Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS).

Six detectors are being constructed at the LHC, located underground in large caverns excavated at the LHC's intersection points. Two of them, ATLAS and CMS, are large, "general purpose" particle detectors.[2] ALICE is a large detector designed to search for a quark-gluon plasma in the debris of heavy ion collisions. The other three (LHCb, TOTEM, and LHCf) are smaller and more specialized. A seventh experiment, FP420 (Forward Physics at 420m), has been proposed which would add detectors to four available spaces located 420m on either side of the ATLAS and CMS detectors.[9]

The size of the LHC constitutes an exceptional engineering challenge with unique safety issues. While running, the total energy stored in the magnets is 10 GJ, and in the beam 725 MJ. Loss of only 10−7 of the beam is sufficient to quench a superconducting magnet, while the beam dump must absorb an energy equivalent to a typical air-dropped bomb. For comparison, 725 MJ is equivalent to the detonation energy of approximately 157 kilograms (350 lb) of TNT, and 10 GJ is about 2.5 tons of TNT.

Research
A Feynman diagram of one way the Higgs boson may be produced at the LHC. Here, two quarks each emit a W or Z boson which combine to make a neutral Higgs.
A Feynman diagram of one way the Higgs boson may be produced at the LHC. Here, two quarks each emit a W or Z boson which combine to make a neutral Higgs.
A simulated event in the CMS detector, featuring the appearance of the Higgs boson.
A simulated event in the CMS detector, featuring the appearance of the Higgs boson.

When in operation, about seven thousand scientists from eighty countries will have access to the LHC, the largest national contingent of seven hundred being from the United States. Physicists hope to use the collider to test various grand unified theories and enhance their ability to answer the following questions:

* Is the popular Higgs mechanism for generating elementary particle masses in the Standard Model realised in nature? If so, how many Higgs bosons are there, and what are their masses?[10]
* Will the more precise measurements of the masses of the quarks continue to be mutually consistent within the Standard Model?
* Do particles have supersymmetric ("SUSY") partners?[2]
* Why are there apparent violations of the symmetry between matter and antimatter?[2] See also CP-violation.
* Are there extra dimensions indicated by theoretical gravitons, as predicted by various models inspired by string theory, and can we "see" them?
* What is the nature of dark matter and dark energy?[2]
* Why is gravity so many orders of magnitude weaker than the other three fundamental forces?

As an ion collider

The LHC physics program is mainly based on proton-proton collisions. However, shorter running periods, typically one month per year, with heavy-ion collisions are included in the programme. While lighter ions are considered as well, the baseline scheme deals with lead (Pb) ions.[11] This will allow an advancement in the experimental programme currently in progress at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC).

Proposed upgrade
CMS detector for LHC
CMS detector for LHC

After some years of running, any particle physics experiment typically begins to suffer from diminishing returns; each additional year of operation discovers less than the year before. The way around the diminishing returns is to upgrade the experiment, either in energy or in luminosity.

A luminosity upgrade of the LHC, called the Super LHC, has been proposed,[12] to be made after ten years of LHC operation. The optimal path for the LHC luminosity upgrade includes an increase in the beam current (i.e., the number of protons in the beams) and the modification of the two high luminosity interaction regions, ATLAS and CMS. To achieve these increases, the energy of the beams at the point that they are injected into the (Super) LHC should also be increased to 1 TeV. This will require an upgrade of the full pre-injector system, the needed changes in the Super Proton Synchrotron being the most expensive.

Cost

The construction of LHC was approved in 1995 with a budget of 2.6 billion Swiss francs, with another 210 million francs (140 M€ towards the cost of the experiments. However, cost over-runs, estimated in a major review in 2001 at around 480 million francs (300 M€ for the accelerator, and 50 million francs (30 M€ for the experiments, along with a reduction in CERN's budget, pushed the completion date from 2005 to April 2007.[13] 180 million francs (120 M€ of the cost increase have been due to the superconducting magnets. There were also engineering difficulties encountered while building the underground cavern for the Compact Muon Solenoid. In part this was due to allegedly faulty parts lent to CERN by fellow laboratories Argonne National Laboratory (home to the world's largest particle accelerator until CERN finishes the Large Hadron Collider) or Fermilab.[14] The total cost of the project is anticipated to be between $5 and $10 billion (US Dollars).[2]

LHC@Home

Main article: LHC@home

The distributed computing project LHC@Home was started to support the construction and calibration of the LHC. The project uses the BOINC platform to simulate how particles will travel in the tunnel. With this information, the scientists will be able to determine how the magnets should be calibrated to gain the most stable "orbit" of the beams in the ring.

Safety concerns
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Concerns have been raised that performing collisions at previously unexplored energies might unleash new and disastrous phenomena. These include the production of micro black holes, and strangelets, potentially resulting in a doomsday scenario. Such issues were raised in connection with the RHIC accelerator, both in the media[15][16] and in the scientific community;[17] however, after detailed studies, scientists reached such conclusions as "beyond reasonable doubt, heavy-ion experiments at RHIC will not endanger our planet"[18] and that there is "powerful empirical evidence against the possibility of dangerous strangelet production."[19]

One argument against such fears is that collisions at these energies (and higher) have been happening in nature for billions of years apparently without hazardous effects, as ultra-high-energy cosmic rays impact Earth's atmosphere and other bodies in the universe.[20] A concern against this cosmic-ray argument is that, if dangerous strangelets or micro black holes were created at LHC, a proportion would have less than the Earth's escape velocity (of 11.2 km/s), and therefore would be captured by the Earth's gravitational field, whereas those created by high-energy cosmic rays would leave the planet at high speed, due to the laws of conservation of momentum at relativistic speeds[citation needed].

CERN's review concludes, after detailed analysis, that "there is no basis for any conceivable threat" from strangelets, black holes, or monopoles.[21][22] However, the concern about the verity of Hawking radiation was not addressed, and another study was commissioned by CERN in 2007 for publication on CERN's web-site by the end of 2007.[citation needed]

The risk of a doomsday scenario was indicated by Sir Martin Rees, with respect to the RHIC, as being a one in fifty million chance,[23] and by Professor Frank Close, with regards to (dangerous) strangelets, that 'the chance of this happening is like you winning the major prize on the lottery 3 weeks in succession; the problem is that people believe it is possible to win the lottery 3 weeks in succession'.[24] Accurate assessments of these risks are impossible due to the present incomplete, or even hypothetically flawed, standard model of particle physics (see also a list of unsolved problems in physics).

Micro black holes

Although the Standard Model of particle physics predicts that LHC energies are far too low to create black holes, some extensions of the Standard Model posit the existence of extra spatial dimensions, in which it would be possible to create micro black holes at the LHC[25][26][27] at a rate on the order of one per second. According to the standard calculations these are harmless because they would quickly decay by Hawking radiation. The concern from opposing civil society movements[28] is that, among other disputed factors, Hawking radiation (which is still debated[29]) is not yet an experimentally-tested or naturally observed phenomenon. Thus, the above mentioned opponents to LHC consider that micro black holes produced in a terrestrial laboratory might not decay as rapidly as calculated, or might even not be prone to decay and, if unable to rapidly evaporate, they could start interacting, grow larger and potentially be disastrous to Earth itself.[30]

Strangelets

Main article: Strangelet

Strangelets are a hypothetical form of strange matter that contains roughly equal numbers of up, down, and strange quarks and are more stable than ordinary nuclei. If strangelets can actually exist, and if they were produced at LHC, they could conceivably initiate a runaway fusion process (reminiscent of the fictional ice-nine) in which all the nuclei in the planet were converted to strange matter, similar to a strange star.

Legal challenge

On 21st March 2008 a complaint requesting an injunction against the LHC's startup was filed before the US District Court of Hawaii[31][32] by a group of seven concerned individuals. This group includes Walter L. Wagner who notably was unable to obtain an injunction against the much lower energy RHIC for similar concerns. See: RHIC - Fears among the public

The restraining order[33] is a demand for an injunction of 4 months time after issuance of the LHC Safety Assessment Group's (LSAG) Safety Review originally promised by January 1, 2008, to review the LHC's most recent safety documentation, after it has been issued, and a permanent injunction until the LHC can be demonstrated to be reasonably safe within industry standards.

Construction accidents and delays

On October 25, 2005, a technician, José Pereira Lages, was killed in the LHC tunnel when a crane load was accidentally dropped.[34][35]

On March 27, 2007, there was an incident during a pressure test involving one of the LHC's inner triplet magnet assemblies provided by Fermilab and KEK. No people were injured, but a cryogenic magnet support broke. Fermilab director Pier Oddone stated 'In this case we are dumbfounded that we missed some very simple balance of forces.' This fault had been present in the original design, and remained during four engineering reviews over the following years.[36] Analysis revealed that its design, made as thin as possible for better insulation, was not strong enough to withstand the forces generated during pressure testing. Details are available in a statement from Fermilab, with which CERN is in agreement.[37][38]

Repairing the broken magnet and reinforcing the eight identical copies used by LHC, in addition to a number of other small delays, caused a postponement of the planned November 26, 2007 startup date[39] to May 2008.[40]

--
Jeff.

A quark star or strange star is a hypothetical type of exotic star composed of quark matter, or strange matter. These are ultra-dense phases of degenerate matter theorized to form inside particularly massive neutron stars.

It is theorized that when the neutron-degenerate matter which makes up a neutron star is put under sufficient pressure due to the star's gravity, the individual neutrons break down into their constituent quarks, up quarks and down quarks. Some of these quarks may then become strange quarks and form strange matter. The star then becomes known as a "quark star" or "strange star", similar to a single gigantic hadron (but bound by gravity rather than the colour force). Quark matter/strange matter is one candidate for the theoretical dark matter that is a feature of several cosmological theories.
Contents

* 1 Quark star
* 2 Strange star
* 3 Other theorized quark formations
* 4 Observed overdense neutron stars
* 5 See also
* 6 External links
* 7 References

[edit] Quark star

A quark star may be formed from a neutron star through a process called quark deconfinement. This process may produce a quark nova. The resultant star should have free quarks in its interior. The deconfinement process should release immense amounts of energy, perhaps being the most energetic explosions in existence. It may be that gamma ray bursts are indeed quark-novae. A quark star lies between neutron stars and black holes in terms of both mass and density, and if sufficient additional matter is added to a quark star, it will collapse into a black hole.

Neutron stars with masses of 1.5–1.8 solar masses with rapid spin are theoretically the best candidates for conversion. This amounts to 1% of the projected neutron star population. An extrapolation based on this indicates that up to 2 quark-novae may occur in the observable universe each day.

Theoretically quark stars may be radio quiet, so radio-quiet neutron stars may be quark stars.

[edit] Strange star

Recent theoretical research has found mechanisms by which quark stars with "strange quark nuggets" may decrease the objects' electric fields and densities from previous theoretical expectations, causing such stars to appear very much like—nearly indistinguishable from—neutron stars [1]. However, the team made some fundamental assumptions that led to uncertainties in their theory large enough that the case for it is not yet solid. More research, both observational and theoretical, remains to be done on strange stars in the future.

Other theoretical work [2] contends that, "A sharp interface between quark matter and the vacuum would have very different properties from the surface of a neutron star"; and, addressing key parameters like surface tension and electrical forces that were neglected in the original study, the results show that as long as the surface tension is below a low critical value, the large strangelets are indeed unstable to fragmentation and strange stars naturally come with complex strangelet crusts, analogous to those of neutron stars.

[edit] Other theorized quark formations

* Jaffe 1977, suggested a four-quark state with strangeness (qsqs).
* Jaffe 1977 suggested the H dibaryon, a six-quark state with equal numbers of up-, down-, and strange quarks (represented as uuddss or udsuds).
* Bound multi-quark systems with heavy quarks (QQqq).
* In 1987, a pentaquark state was first proposed with a charm anti-quark (qqqsc).
* Pentaquark state with an antistrange quark & four light quarks consisting of up- and down-quarks only (qqqqs).
* Light pentaquarks are grouped within an antidecuplet, the lightest candidate, Ө+.
o This can also be described by the diquark model of Jaffe and Wilczek (QCD).
* Ө++ & antiparticle Ө−−.
* Doubly strange pentaquark (ssddu), member of the light pentaquark antidecuplet.
* Charmed pentaquark Өc(3100) (uuddc) state was detected by the H1 collaboration.

[edit] Observed overdense neutron stars

Quark stars and strange stars are largely theoretical at this point, but observations released by the Chandra X-Ray Observatory on April 10, 2002 detected two candidates, designated RX J1856.5-3754 and 3C58, which had previously been thought to be neutron stars. Based on the known laws of physics, the former appeared much smaller and the latter much colder than it should be, suggesting that they are composed of material denser than neutron-degenerate matter. However, these observations have been under attack by researchers who say the results were not conclusive; it remains to be seen how the question of quark star or strange star existence will play out. Recently a third star, XTE J1739-285, [3] has been observed by a team led by Philip Kaaret of the University of Iowa, and also reported as a possible candidate.

[edit] See also

* Quark-nova
* QCD matter
* Quark-gluon plasma
* Quantum chromodynamics
* Neutron stars - neutron matter - neutron-degenerate matter - neutron
* Preon stars - preon matter - preon-degenerate matter - preon
* deconfinement
* Fuzzballs
* Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit on the mass of a Neutron star.

--
Jeff.

The Colbert Report (/koʊlbɛɹ ɹəɔɹ/—the T's are silent in "Colbert" and "Report") is an American satirical television program that airs from 11:30 p.m. to 12:00 midnight Eastern Time Zone (North America) each Monday through Thursday on Comedy Central in the United States and on both The Comedy Network and CTV in Canada. In the United Kingdom from May 2008 it will air at 11.00 p.m on FX (UK) each Tuesday through Friday. It stars political humorist Stephen Colbert, a former correspondent for The Daily Show.

The Colbert Report is a spin-off and counterpart of The Daily Show which, like The Daily Show, critiques politics and the media. It satirizes personality-driven political pundit programs, particularly Fox News' The O'Reilly Factor.[1][2] The show focuses on Stephen Colbert, a fictional anchorman character played by Colbert. The character, described by Colbert as a "well-intentioned, poorly informed, high-status idiot", is a caricature of televised political pundits.[3][4]

The Colbert Report was nominated for four Emmys each in 2006 and 2007, two Television Critics Association Awards, and two Satellite Awards. It received a Special Recognition award at the 2007 GLAAD Media Awards. It has been presented as non-satirical journalism in several instances, by the Tom DeLay Legal Defense Trust, and following Robert Wexler's interview on the program. The Report received considerable media coverage following its debut on October 17, 2005, for Colbert's popularizing of the term "truthiness", which dictionary publisher Merriam-Webster named its 2006 "Word of the Year."[5]

The Report has had cultural influence in a number of ways. In 2006, after Colbert encouraged viewers to vote online to name a Hungarian bridge after him, he won the first round of voting with 17,231,724 votes.[6] The Ambassador of the Republic of Hungary presented Mr. Colbert with a declaration certifying him as the winner of the second and final round of voting, though it was later announced that the bridge would be named the Megyeri Bridge. In 2007, the Democratic Caucus chair instructed freshmen not to appear on the show's 'Better Know a District' segment.[7] The Report has also coined several neologisms, such as "freem" and "wikiality".
Contents

* 1 Production
o 1.1 Program format
o 1.2 Set
o 1.3 Writers' strike
* 2 Stephen Colbert (character)
* 3 Recurring themes
o 3.1 Truthiness
o 3.2 Relation to The O'Reilly Factor
o 3.3 Greenscreen challenges
o 3.4 Wrist violence and fictional addiction
o 3.5 Recurring characters
* 4 Reception
* 5 Legal issues
* 6 Presented as non-satirical journalism
o 6.1 Tom DeLay Legal Defense Trust
o 6.2 Robert Wexler
* 7 Staff and writers
* 8 Awards
o 8.1 Other honors
* 9 Cultural impact
o 9.1 Hungarian bridge campaign
o 9.2 Congressional response
o 9.3 Neologisms
o 9.4 Wikipedia references
o 9.5 2006 White House Correspondents' Association Dinner
o 9.6 Running for President in 2008
* 10 DVDs
* 11 Syndication
* 12 See also
* 13 Notes
* 14 References
* 15 External links
o 15.1 Radio interviews

[edit] Production
Colbert on "The Colbert Gang"
Colbert on "The Colbert Gang"

In 2004, The Daily Show won Emmy Awards, and Comedy Central wanted to expand the franchise.[8] Stephen Colbert had been a correspondent on, and co-writer for, The Daily Show for six seasons. Jon Stewart and Ben Karlin (The Daily Show's executive producer) supposedly came up with the idea for The Colbert Report after watching coverage of the sexual harassment lawsuit filed against Bill O'Reilly. Jon Stewart's production company, Busboy Productions, developed The Report. Colbert, Stewart, and Karlin pitched the idea of the show (reportedly with one phrase: "our version of The O'Reilly Factor with Stephen Colbert") to Comedy Central chief Doug Herzog, who agreed to run the show for eight weeks without creating a pilot.[9]

The Colbert Report first appeared in the form of three commercials for itself which aired several times on The Daily Show, although the themes that form the basis for The Report can be seen in the reports of Colbert's correspondent character on The Daily Show. The show debuted October 17, 2005, with an initial contract for an eight-week run. On November 2, 2005 based on the strong ratings for the show's first two weeks, Comedy Central and Colbert announced they had signed for an additional year, through the end of 2006.[10]

[edit] Program format

Typically, Colbert starts each episode with teasers regarding the show's topics and guest, followed by a verbal metaphor that promotes the show — for example, "Go out ten yards and button-hook to the left. I'm going to hit you with a perfect spiral of the truth. This is The Colbert Report." The show's opening title sequence begins with images of flag waving, Colbert striking poses and words describing Colbert flying by. Originally, the last word was grippy, but it has changed to megamerican, Lincolnish, superstantial, freem, eneagled, flagaphile, good, gutly, warrior-poet, President Bush have a hotdog with me, and one-time only on April 14, 2008, Self-Evident (returning to President Bush have a hotdog with me shortly after). The sequence ends with a computer-generated shrieking eagle swooping toward the foreground.

Following the opening sequence, Colbert proceeds a run-through of the day's headlines, similar to that of The Daily Show but with a pseudo-right-wing spin. The program proper then begins with Colbert addressing a specific topic. That topic will usually lead into a "The Wørd" segment, which juxtaposes Colbert's commentary with satirical bullet points on-screen, a parody on The O'Reilly Factor's "Talking Points Memo;"[11] though on occasion he will conduct a short interview with someone having to do with the topic. The format of the middle segment varies, but it is normally a visual presentation or skit. Often, these skits are parts of recurring segments, which include:

* "The Wørd" is a section that occurs in nearly every episode besides those that occurred during the Writer's Strike. It consists of a word or phrase that is linked to his current monologue, and proceeds with Colbert speaking on the subject in the left half of the screen, and a completely different entity commenting on the right half of the screen. The comments are often witty phrases and one-liners that lie in juxtaposition to Colbert's right-wing act.
* "Better Know a District", where Colbert interviews a U.S. Representative from a certain district of the United States. There are various spin-offs of the segment.
* "Tip of the Hat / Wag of the Finger", where Colbert "tips his hat" to things he approves of and "wags his finger" at things he disapproves of.
* "Stephen Colbert's Formidable Opponent", where Colbert debates in a split screen with the only person he thinks is worthy: himself. Usually one of the Colberts takes a more liberal stance and the other one a right-wing fundamentalist one, usually with latter winning.
* "People Destroying America," a segment where Colbert interviews a certain person who is (usually ridiculously) "destroying America."
* "Cheating Death with Dr. Stephen T. Colbert, D.F.A.", a health segment presented by Colbert ever since he was given an honorary doctorate, despite the fact it was in fine arts. All of the products he advertises are from "Prescott Pharmaceuticals", and have horrible side effects--occasionally, a more severe version of what the product supposedly cures.
* "The Threatdown", where he lists the five biggest threats to America, although the number one threat normally tends to be bears("Godless killing machines") or robots, as Colbert purports to have a phobia of both.
* "Colbert Platinum", covering stories relating to expensive, high-profile items. Colbert often reminds his viewers that this segment is for "Platinum Members of Colbert Nation Only", and instructs poorer people not to watch the segment.
* "Alpha Dog of the Week", reviewing the story of someone that displayed leadership over the week. Despite the name of the segment, it does not happen every week.
* "Monkey on the Lam", a report of an escaped monkey.
* "Stephen Colbert presents Stephen Colbert's Alpha Squad 7: A Tek Jansen Adventure", a short cartoon, whose main character is an idealized space-hero version of Colbert. The cartoon character is voiced by Colbert. The first seven episodes were designed and produced by J.J. Sedelmaier Productions, Inc., the same studio that designed and animated the SPARTINA title card at the end of every Colbert Report show.
* "Stephen Colbert's Sport Report" (silent "t" in "Sport"), The Report's segment that talks about sports.

Sometimes, there is a "Colbert Report Special Repor-t" (final "t" pronounced with special emphasis), in which Colbert devotes a section of an episode, and sometimes the entire episode to a special subject. The third segment is almost always an interview with a celebrity guest, often an author or government official.[12] The interview is, unlike The Daily Show, conducted at a different table on the set. Viewers applaud as Colbert hammily jogs from his desk to the interview area, where his guest awaits. This is different from the traditional format, in which the guest enters to applause and joins the already seated host. Afterwards, Colbert ends the show by giving some parting words to the audience.
Colbert on the set of The Colbert Report. Note the three instances of the show's title (four counting the desk).
Colbert on the set of The Colbert Report. Note the three instances of the show's title (four counting the desk).

[edit] Set

The studio in which The Colbert Report is taped was used for The Daily Show until July 2005. The set for The Colbert Report is called "The Eagle's Nest" and reflects and facilitates Colbert's self-aggrandizing style.[13] The set has two main areas: the desk, from which Colbert hosts most of the show, and the guest interview area to camera right, where his guest for the evening is interviewed. On one wall, above an artificial fireplace, is a portrait of Colbert; it originally showed Colbert standing in front of the same mantel with another portrait of himself. On the show's first anniversary, the portrait was replaced by one of Colbert standing in front of the mantel with the first portrait above it; the original was auctioned off at a charity event[14] and currently hangs in the Sticky Fingers restaurant in Colbert's native Charleston.[15] Colbert claimed that the portrait will be changed every year to add another level of depth. On October 17, 2007, the portrait was removed and replaced with a new one that followed an identical pattern, but changed Colbert's placement in the foreground.
Colbert Portrait hanging on display near the bathrooms of the National Portrait Gallery
Colbert Portrait hanging on display near the bathrooms of the National Portrait Gallery

As of January 16, 2008, the current "3-deep" Colbert portrait has been placed on display "right between the bathrooms near the 'America's Presidents' exhibit" at the National Portrait Gallery in Washington, DC. [16] After first being rejected by the National Museum of American History, Colbert petitioned the Smithsonian to display his portrait, who agreed to "go along with the joke," though they stress that it is only temporary. Colbert said "I don't mean to brag, but as it contains three portraits, my portrait has more portraits than any other portrait in the National Portrait Gallery."

The portrait formally on display at the National Portrait Gallery in DC is now on display at the Smithsonian until April 13th.
Outside the studio.
Outside the studio.

The graphics used throughout the show and the studio itself are saturated with American flags, Bald Eagles, and other patriotic imagery.[17] The set contains many references to Colbert, and on the show's first episode he pointed out several examples: his name, initials and the name of the show appear on the desk's plasma screen, on the rafters above the desk, and the desk itself is shaped like a giant "C".[13] In an interview with The A.V. Club, Colbert explained that much of the design for the set was inspired by Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper. "All the architecture of that room points at Jesus' head, the entire room is a halo", Colbert said. "On the set, I'd like the lines of the set to converge on my head. And so if you look at the design, it all does, it all points at my head...there's a sort of sun-god burst quality about the set around me."[18] On the floor to the front stage right of his desk there is an Eagle's nest, and a tape outline of where he injured his wrist, akin to those seen at murder scenes.

For the week of April 14 through April 17 2008, the program was taped at the Annenberg Center for the Performing Arts at the University of Pennsylvania campus, in advance of the Democratic Party primary in that state on April 22. This is the first time the program has been taped outside its regular New York City studios.[19]

[edit] Writers' strike

Production of new episodes was suspended on November 5, 2007 due to the Writers Guild of America strike, although a live untaped performance called The Colbert Report - On Strike! took place on December 3, 2007, with proceeds going towards show staffers.[20] The show returned on January 7, 2008, without the writing staff.[21] Upon the show's return, Colbert modified the pronunciation of the show's name, using hard Ts (/koʊlbɵɹt ɹəɔɹt/); a similar move was made by The Daily Show which returned to air as A Daily Show. On February 13, in honor of the end of the strike, the original names of both shows were restored.

During the strike, Colbert stopped performing the customary "table of contents" that usually precedes the opening titles, as well as other regular written segments such as The Wørd. As a member of the Writers Guild of America, Colbert was barred from writing any material for the show himself which his writers would ordinarily write.[22] As a result, Colbert conducted more guest interviews, although several people turned down invitations to cross the picket line to appear on the show, including Katrina van den Heuvel and Naomi Klein.[23] At one stage, Colbert lashed out at fellow late night host Conan O'Brien, who had also recently returned to air without his writers, for claiming to have made presidential candidate Mike Huckabee. This sparked a briefly recurring mock feud between Colbert, O'Brien and Jon Stewart which culminated in a three-way brawl on Late Night with Conan O'Brien on February 4.[24]

[edit] Stephen Colbert (character)

Main article: Stephen Colbert (character)

Stephen Colbert as the fictional Stephen Colbert
Stephen Colbert as the fictional Stephen Colbert

The Stephen Colbert character is a semi-fictional character portrayed by comedian and actor Stephen Colbert. The character is a caricature of news pundits such as Stone Phillips, Bill O'Reilly, Sean Hannity, and Geraldo Rivera, whose shows focus on "bluster and personality".[9][4] Colbert's character, a "well-intentioned, poorly informed, high-status idiot", is right-wing, egomaniacal, fact-averse, God-fearing, and super-patriotic. He claims to be an independent who is often mistaken for a Republican, but uniformly despises liberals and generally agrees with the actions and decisions of George W. Bush and the Republican Party. This is evidenced by one of the questions that he asks of many of his guests: "George W. Bush: great President, or the greatest President?"[25]

The character's self-aggrandizing style includes frequent promotion of an extensive range of fictional merchandising and products, including perfumes, sci-fi novels, medications, his own "man seed", and other products, all of which are either produced or endorsed by Colbert. Stephen Colbert has even written his own book, I Am America And So Can You. Colbert has also convinced his viewers, whom he addresses as "the Colbert Nation", to vote for him in various public naming polls: the mascot of the Saginaw Spirit, an Ontario Hockey League team has been named after him.[26]

Colbert's character has been described as a "caustic right-wing bully".[8] On the interview segment of the show, Colbert frequently attempts to "nail" his guest by using various rhetorical devices, and often logical fallacies, to prove them wrong.[27] Despite his bluster, Colbert's character suffers from arctophobia, the fear of bears, which he refers to as "giant, marauding, godless killing machines."[28] This bear phobia was inspired by Colbert's real-life fear of bears as a child.[27] Colbert refers to Bill O'Reilly as "Papa Bear", a title with a double meaning, considering Colbert's hatred of bears.[29] Colbert displays fear and suspicion of nearly any animal and is quick to declare they are "training" to attack humanity. He is also highly distrustful of technology, particularly robots.[30] Over the months of May and July in 2007, Colbert begged Apple to give him a free iPhone, and finally received one in July. Once he received it, however, he claimed the phone knew so much about him that he had become virtually dependent on it, and that the iPhone itself was a threat.[30] Colbert also despises the liberal media, the New York Times in particular, but applauds conservative media such as Fox News on a regular basis.[31]

[edit] Recurring themes

The Colbert Report presents various recurring themes that help define the show.

[edit] Truthiness
Stephen Colbert announces that "The Wørd" of the night is truthiness, during the premiere episode of The Colbert Report.
Stephen Colbert announces that "The Wørd" of the night is truthiness, during the premiere episode of The Colbert Report.

Main article: Truthiness

In "The Wørd" segment of the first episode of the Report, Colbert featured the term truthiness, defined as "the quality by which one purports to know something emotionally or instinctively, without regard to evidence or intellectual examination." Colbert said that, "I don't trust books, they're all fact, no heart. And that's exactly what's pulling our country apart today. Let's face it folks, we are a divided nation… between those who think with their head and those who know with their heart."[32] In December 2005, the New York Times selected truthiness as one of nine words that captured the zeitgeist of the year, and in January 2006, the American Dialect Society announced that truthiness was selected as its 2005 Word of the Year.[33]

Colbert has made frequent reference to the spread of the word truthiness since he introduced it, while carping on media accounts of truthiness that neglect to identify him as its source.[31] Truthiness has since been discussed, sometimes repeatedly, in the New York Times, the Washington Post, USA Today, the San Francisco Chronicle, the Chicago Tribune, Newsweek, MSNBC, National Public Radio, the Associated Press, Editor & Publisher, Salon, The Huffington Post, ABC NewsRadio's Word Watch with Kel Richards and Chicago Reader, and on ABC's Nightline, CBS' 60 Minutes, and The Oprah Winfrey Show. In January 2006, truthiness was featured as a Word of the Week by the website of the Macmillan English Dictionary.[34] In December of the same year, Merriam-Webster announced that "truthiness" had been voted by visitors to its website to be the #1 Word of the Year for 2006.[35] On August 27, 2006, the Global Language Monitor named truthiness and wikiality — both coined by Colbert on The Colbert Report — as the top television buzzwords of 2006.[36][37]

[edit] Relation to The O'Reilly Factor
Stephen Colbert appears as a guest on The O'Reilly Factor. January 18, 2007.
Stephen Colbert appears as a guest on The O'Reilly Factor. January 18, 2007.

The Stephen Colbert character and The Colbert Report are generally parodies of Bill O'Reilly and The O'Reilly Factor. New episodes of The Colbert Report are scheduled in the same time slot as rebroadcasts of The O'Reilly Factor, while Colbert rebroadcasts are scheduled during new O'Reilly shows.[38] When O'Reilly appeared on The Daily Show before the second episode of The Colbert Report aired, he commented, "Before we get started, somebody told me walking in here, you got some French guy on after you making fun of me?", and made several references in the following interview to 'the French Guy'.[39][40] In a subsequent Newsweek interview, O'Reilly said that he "feels it's a compliment" to have Colbert parody him because Colbert "isn't mean-spirited" and does not "use [his] platform to injure people." Later, Colbert replied on-air, "I like you too. In fact, if it wasn't for you, this show wouldn't exist."[4]

The Colbert Report features a commentary segment called "The Wørd", similar to O'Reilly's "Talking Points Memo". Like the "Memo", "The Wørd" features the commentator asserting a political point of view with a text screen graphic next to him. However, while O'Reilly's text serves to emphasize his points, Colbert's text generally serves as an ironic counterpoint to his character's position. Other segments that can be juxtaposed with The O'Reilly Factor are The Colbert Report's Inbox (compared to O'Reilly's "Factor Mail"); Stephen Colbert's Balls for Kidz which, unlike The Factor's "Children at Risk", tends to portray messages and lessons typically considered unsuitable for children; and That's The Craziest F#?king Thing I've Ever Heard, which is comparable to O'Reilly's "The Most Ridiculous Item of the Day". Additionally, Colbert parodies O'Reilly's references to his program as the "no spin zone" by inviting viewers of his show to "take a spin in the no fact zone."[41] O'Reilly and Colbert each appeared as a guest on the other's show on January 18, 2007. O'Reilly seemed to regret this "crossover" before his time on The Colbert Report was through, stating as the audience reacted badly to him that it was "a huge mistake, me coming on here."[28] (As a souvenir, Colbert "stole" a microwave from the O'Reilly green room—in fact, he informed O'Reilly of his intention to take the microwave beforehand—later displaying it on his own show. He later sent over a replacement microwave, emblazoned with